Uttam Rosyara1 , Lokendra Khatri1* , Prakash Bharati2 and Rabin Chaudhary2
सारAbstract
Traditional biomass remains a dominant household energy source in many low- and middleincome countries, yet its gendered labour implications remain insufficiently examined at local
scales. This study investigates the gendered division of labour and associated health burdens
in firewood-dependent households in Krishnapur Municipality, Kanchanpur district, Nepal. A
mixed-methods cross-sectional design was applied combining household surveys (n = 70), focus group discussions, and key informant interviews with forest user groups and ward officials.
Quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, correlation tests and crosstabulations, while qualitative data provided contextual explanations of labour norms and decision-making. Results revealed a persistent gender asymmetry in firewood-related tasks: women accounted for 65.7% of collection, 70% of arranging, and 58.6% of cooking activities,
whereas men predominated in wood slicing (65.7%) and mechanized transportation. Overall,
women contributed 43.1% to total workload compared to 21.7% for men and 35.1% jointly.
More than half (54.3%) reported health problems linked to carrying and burning firewood, and
distance to collection sites was strongly correlated with health complaints (r = 0.693, p < 0.01).
Despite high reliance on firewood, 83% of households expressed willingness to shift to cleaner
fuels, constrained primarily by economic limitations and forest access. The study contributes
empirical evidence to gender-energy scholarship by quantifying task-specific labour burdens
and linking them to health risks and time poverty. Findings highlight the need for
gender-responsive clean cooking policies, improved financing mechanisms, and targeted community forestry interventions to reduce women’s workload and accelerate equitable energy
transitions.Traditional biomass remains a dominant household energy source in many low- and middleincome countries, yet its gendered labour implications remain insufficiently examined at local
scales. This study investigates the gendered division of labour and associated health burdens
in firewood-dependent households in Krishnapur Municipality, Kanchanpur district, Nepal. A
mixed-methods cross-sectional design was applied combining household surveys (n = 70), focus group discussions, and key informant interviews with forest user groups and ward officials.
Quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, correlation tests and crosstabulations, while qualitative data provided contextual explanations of labour norms and decision-making. Results revealed a persistent gender asymmetry in firewood-related tasks: women accounted for 65.7% of collection, 70% of arranging, and 58.6% of cooking activities,
whereas men predominated in wood slicing (65.7%) and mechanized transportation. Overall,
women contributed 43.1% to total workload compared to 21.7% for men and 35.1% jointly.
More than half (54.3%) reported health problems linked to carrying and burning firewood, and
distance to collection sites was strongly correlated with health complaints (r = 0.693, p < 0.01).
Despite high reliance on firewood, 83% of households expressed willingness to shift to cleaner
fuels, constrained primarily by economic limitations and forest access. The study contributes
empirical evidence to gender-energy scholarship by quantifying task-specific labour burdens
and linking them to health risks and time poverty. Findings highlight the need for
gender-responsive clean cooking policies, improved financing mechanisms, and targeted community forestry interventions to reduce women’s workload and accelerate equitable energy
transitions.